Cancer patient's vocabulary

The cancer journey is complex and overflowing with many terms that can be confusing for someone facing cancer diagnosis for the first time. We have compiled a small explanatory vocabulary for you, explaining the most commonly used terms in simple words.

• Acute – a description referring to symptoms and conditions that appear and worsen rapidly, but do not last for a long time (e.g. acute pain).

• Adjuvant therapy – therapy given after the main treatment in order to reduce the chance of the cancer coming back (recurrence) in the future. Adjuvant therapy can be chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and immunotherapy.

• Benign – a definition referring to a tumor that is not malignant. A benign tumor usually does not grow into surrounding tissues and organs, does not spread to other parts of the body, does not cause severe symptoms and most often cannot lead to death.

• Biopsy – a procedure during which the doctor takes a small piece of tissue or a sample of cells from the patient's body for further examination under a microscope. This is done to find out if the patient has any abnormalities or diseases such as malignant tumors.

• Bone marrow – soft tissue that is found inside bones such as the pelvis, sternum, spine and skull bones. Bone marrow plays an important role in making blood cells and the body's immune system. Bone marrow is also an important storage site for stem cells, which can turn into different types of blood cells and keep the hematopoietic system healthy.

• Bone marrow transplant – medical procedure where healthy bone marrow cells from the patient's own body or from a donor are injected into the patient. In oncology, this method is often used in the treatment of leukemia or lymphoma. The procedure may take place in several stages. First, the patient is given chemotherapy or radiation therapy to destroy the malignant cells. Then the patient is transplanted with healthy bone marrow cells. These cells begin to produce new blood cells, which helps restore healthy blood composition.

• Bronchoscopy –  a procedure in which a doctor uses a special tool called a bronchoscope to look inside a patient's larynx, trachea and bronchi (airways). A bronchoscopy is done to find out what is happening in the airways, to check them for problems such as infections or tumors, or to take tissue samples (biopsies) for analysis. This can help your doctor determine a diagnosis and prescribe the right treatment if needed.

• Cancer marker – a substance that can be detected in the blood, urine or tissues of a patient and indicates the presence of a certain type of cancer in the body or its activity. Cancer markers are used in medical practice in the course of tumor diagnosis, monitoring the effectiveness of treatment and determining recurrence. However, it is worth noting that not all types of cancer have specific cancer markers. It is also worth knowing that not all cancer markers are highly accurate: test results can be false positive or false negative, so the determination of cancer markers usually makes sense in combination with other diagnostic methods.

• Cancer patients follow-up – the systematic medical monitoring of the patient after the completion of treatment for cancer. It includes regular visits to the oncologist for tests and check-ups. The timing of the follow-up, as well as the examination methods to be performed on the patient, are specified in the clinical protocols for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. 

• Carcinoma – a type of malignant tumor that begins its growth in the skin or tissue lining the inside or covering the outside of internal organs.

• Chemotherapy – method of treating cancer and some other diseases using medicines called chemotherapy drugs or simply 'chemo'. These drugs can be administered to the patient in the form of pills, injections or infusions (drips). They work by destroying cancer cells or slowing their growth and spread.

• Chronic – a description referring to symptoms and conditions that appear gradually, last for a long time, and may disappear and reappear.  

• Cell – the smallest structural unit of a living organism. The human body is made up of billions of cells. Each cell has its own special function in the body. For example, some cells build bones, others transmit signals to the brain or protect the body from infections. Cells have different shapes and sizes depending on their functions. 

• Clinical trial – a special study in which a new treatment, drug, or diagnostic method is tested on people, with their voluntary consent, to see how effective and safe it is. Trial participants can get access to new drugs or treatments that may be promising in fighting their disease. Clinical trials help scientists and doctors better understand which treatments for certain diseases are most effective, and help in the development of new and improved ways to fight disease. 

• Сlinical protocols for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer – a set of guidelines or recommendations that help doctors determine appropriate diagnostic and treatment methods for patients with cancer. Clinical protocols for each type of cancer determine the diagnostic methods to be performed on the patient and the most appropriate treatment strategies. In addition, the timing and extent of follow-up of patients after treatment is also specified in the clinical protocols. 

• Colonoscopy – a medical procedure where the doctor uses a special flexible tubular instrument called a colonoscope to examine the inside of the colon and rectum. A colonoscopy can detect polyps, tumors, inflammation and other processes, as well as take tissue samples for biopsy or remove polyps. 

• Computed tomography (CT) – a type of medical examination that takes pictures using X-rays that pass through the patient's body at different angles. A computer combines these images into a detailed three-dimensional image that will show pathological changes and cancerous processes in the patient's body. 

• Cyst – a cavity or "bubble", usually filled with fluid, that can form in organs or tissues of the body. Cysts can occur due to a variety of causes, including congenital abnormalities, infection, inflammation, injury, or blockage of the excretory ducts of various glands. Cysts can come in a variety of sizes and shapes, and most are usually harmless and do not cause symptoms.

• Diagnostic surgery – a surgical procedure that doctors perform to learn more about the condition of organs or tissues inside a patient's body. Diagnostic surgery is performed when other diagnostic methods, such as laboratory tests and imaging procedures, do not provide enough accurate information to make a diagnosis or assess the stage of a disease. During diagnostic surgery, doctors may take tissue samples for biopsy or visually examine internal organs using endoscopes or other instruments. This helps to determine the exact cause of the problem and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

• Fine-needle aspiration biopsy (sometimes also called puncture) –  procedure to take a tissue sample from a tumor or other suspicious area in the body using a very fine needle. During this procedure, the doctor uses a special needle that is inserted directly into the tumor or area of interest and then aspirates (sucks up) a small amount of cells or tissue with a syringe. The resulting sample is then sent to a laboratory for analysis, where it is examined under a microscope to determine if the sample contains abnormal or malignant cells. 

• Hormone therapy – a method of cancer treatment that aims to manage the levels of certain hormones in the body to influence the growth or spread of a tumor. Hormone therapy is often used when a tumor is sensitive to certain hormones, such as estrogens or testosterone. Hormone therapy may involve taking drugs that block the effects of hormones or reduce their levels in the body. This may help slow the growth of the tumor or even make it shrink.

• Imaging procedures – various techniques used to examine a patient to create images of internal organs and tissues. Imaging procedures such as X-rays, ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and others help to assess the condition of organs and body systems and to determine the causes and location of abnormalities. 

• Immunotherapy – a method of cancer treatment that uses the capabilities of the patient's body's immune system to fight tumors. Immunotherapy involves the use of special drugs that help the immune system to recognise and attack malignant cells. Instead of directly targeting the tumor, as is done with chemotherapy or radiation therapy, immunotherapy helps the body fight the malignancy on its own.

• Infiltration (invasion) – process of penetration, ingrowth of a malignant tumor into the surrounding tissues and organs, accompanied by disruption of the normal function of the structures into which the tumor has infiltrated.  

• Invasive tumor (infiltrating tumor) – a malignant tumor that has spread beyond the layer of tissue in which it originally originated, thus gaining the ability to grow into other tissues or parts of the body.

• Laparoscopy – a surgical procedure in which the doctor uses a special instrument called a laparoscope to examine and perform a series of interventions inside the patient's abdomen. A laparoscope is a flexible tube with a camera and illuminator on the end, which is inserted through small incisions in the abdominal wall. This allows the doctor to see internal organs on a monitor and perform surgical procedures such as removing tumors, treating lesions or carrying out diagnostic tests (such as taking biopsies).

• Leukemia – a type of cancer where malignant changes occur in the cells of the hematopoietic system. In leukemia, the bone marrow begins to produce abnormal white blood cells that do not perform their functions properly. These cells can accumulate in the blood and internal organs, preventing them from performing their normal function. 

• Lymphadenopathy – an increase in the size of lymph nodes that are located in various parts of the body. Lymphadenopathy can manifest as swelling, increased size or soreness of the lymph nodes. 

• Lymphatic system – a complex network of organs (lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, etc.) and connecting vessels, which helps the body to fight infections, malignant cells and toxins, and is also involved in metabolism. 

• Lymphatic dissection – a surgical procedure in which a doctor removes certain lymph nodes for the purpose of diagnosis or treatment. During a lymphodissection, the lymph nodes that are most likely to have metastases of a malignant tumor are removed. Removing certain lymph nodes allows doctors to determine the stage of the cancer and may also prevent the spread of malignant cells. Lymphatic dissection is rarely a stand-alone surgical procedure: more often it is part of malignant tumor removal surgery. 

• Lymphoma – a type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system. Lymphoma begins when cells in the lymphatic system change, start to grow uncontrollably, form tumor masses and/or fill in organs and body parts in the human body. Lymphoma can affect the lymph nodes, spleen, bones, skin, or other parts of the body that contain lymphoid cells. 

• Lymph node – a small organ in the human body, part of the lymphatic system, that acts as a biological filter for the flow of lymph (a colorless fluid used to transport nutrients, protect the body from infection and remove waste from tissues) from organs and parts of the body. Lymph nodes are located throughout the body and help cleanse lymph from bacteria, viruses and other harmful substances. 

• Malignant - a definition referring to a tumor that is characterized by aggressive growth and the ability to spread to other organs and parts of the body. A malignant tumor can lead to severe disease symptoms and death. 

• Metastasis – the spread of a malignant tumor from the place where it first originated to another part of the body. Malignant cells can break away from the primary tumor and travel through the blood or lymphatic system to the lymph nodes, brain, lungs, bones, liver or other organs.

• Myeloma (myeloma disease) – a type of cancer that starts in the bone marrow. In myeloma disease, certain cells in the bone marrow called plasmocytes change and begin to grow uncontrollably. These malignant plasmocytes form single or multiple tumor sites in the bone marrow, damaging the skeletal bones as well as causing a number of other pathological symptoms. 

• Neoadjuvant therapy – a type of therapy that is administered before the main treatment, usually before surgery. The aim of neoadjuvant therapy is to reduce the size of the tumor prior to surgery. This may help make the tumor more accessible for removal and/or reduce the risk of the malignant cells spreading to other parts of the body. Neoadjuvant therapy may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy or immunotherapy, depending on the type of tumor and its characteristics.

• Oncologist – a doctor who specializes in diagnosing tumor diseases and treating patients with cancer. Oncologists can have different specializations such as medical oncology (treating cancer using chemotherapy, immunotherapy, etc.), radiation oncology (treating cancer using radiation therapy), and surgical oncology (performing operations to remove tumors).

• Oncology – medical science that deals with the study and treatment of cancer. It includes the study of the causes and mechanisms of cancer, methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of malignancies.

• Organ removal (-ectomy) – surgical procedure in which a specific organ is completely removed from the body. This may be necessary when the organ is affected by a tumor, damaged or poses a threat to human health. For example, a gastrectomy is the removal of the stomach and an appendectomy is the removal of the appendix. 

• PAP test (Papanicolaou test) – a procedure that is used to screen and detect abnormal changes in the cells of the cervix. In this test, the doctor takes a swab from the cervix and sends it to a laboratory for analysis. The cells are examined there under a microscope to detect any abnormalities, signs of precancerous changes or cancer. 

• Palliative care – any form of treatment aimed at reducing the symptoms of cancer or side effects of cancer treatment, improving quality of life and supporting patients and their families. Palliative care may also be referred to as supportive care.  

• Pathomorphologist – a doctor who specializes in studying changes in the tissues and cells of the body under a microscope in order to diagnose various diseases. Pathomorphologists analyze samples of biological material such as tissues, cells and fluids to determine the nature of disease, its stage and specific characteristics. The work of a pathomorphologist is an important part of the process of establishing a diagnosis and selecting the best treatment for a patient.

• Placebo – a drug or medical procedure that has no active therapeutic effect. A placebo can be used in clinical trials as a control that is used to compare with the actual treatment or medical procedure. There are opinions that placebos may have a positive effect on the patient due to a psychological phenomenon known as the "placebo effect". 

• Placebo effect – a positive change in a patient's condition or improvement in his/her symptoms that occurs due to his/her belief in the efficacy of the treatment or procedure used, even though the treatment itself contains no active ingredients or has no real effect on the disease. 

• Precancer – condition in which some cells in the body begin to show unusual changes that may lead to cancer in the future, but the cancer itself has not yet formed. These changes may include abnormal or unusual cellular structures or functions that are not typical for healthy cells, but are not yet fully malignant. 

• Predisposition – tendency to develop a disease that can occur under certain conditions. For example, in the case of hereditary predisposition, a person may have an increased risk of developing a particular disease due to the presence of a number of genetic changes or mutations.

• Primary tumor (primary tumor focus) – a new lump that first appeared in a person's organs or tissues. A primary tumor can occur in any organ or tissue and can be either benign or malignant. A malignant primary tumor can spread through the body in the form of metastases - secondary tumor foci. 

• Progression – process by which a malignant tumor grows, spreads or intensifies its characteristics in the body. This means that the disease continues to develop and affects the body more and more. Progression can manifest itself in various forms such as increasing the size of the tumor, growing into surrounding tissues and organs, and the formation of metastases.

• Prosthesis – an artificial device that replaces or restores the function of a body part that has been lost due to injury, disease or other causes. A prosthesis is designed to improve life capabilities, restore mobility and/or aesthetic features in people facing loss or damage to limbs, joints or other organs.

• Puncture – procedure in which a doctor uses a special instrument (called a puncture needle) to extract fluid or cells from a patient's body for further analysis. In the context of oncology, a puncture is most commonly the extraction (aspiration) of fluid or tissue from a cyst or tumor to clarify a diagnosis or relieve symptoms.

• Radiation therapy – the use of high-energy X-rays or charged particles to kill malignant cells. The most common type of radiation therapy is called external beam radiation therapy: radiation from a device outside the body. When radiation therapy is given using devices implanted inside or near the tumor, it is called internal radiation therapy or brachytherapy. 

• Radical - in oncology, the term 'radical' is usually used to describe treatment that aims to completely remove the tumor or malignant cells from the patient's body. 

• Recurrence –return or reoccurrence of disease after a period of time during which symptoms or laboratory and instrumental signs of disease were absent. In the case of oncology, recurrence indicates that a cancer that was previously removed or suppressed by treatment has begun to develop or spread in the body again.

• Recurrence-free survival – the period of time after treatment in which the patient does not experience a return of cancer.

• Regimen of therapy – treatment plan including anticipated treatments, medications and their doses, treatment schedule, and duration of treatment.

• Rehabilitation – a comprehensive approach to restoring health and alleviating the physical, psychological and social effects associated with cancer and/or its treatment. The goal of rehabilitation in oncology is to help patients return to a normal life after the end of active cancer treatment or to improve the quality of life in the case of chronic disease.

• Remission – temporary or permanent reduction or disappearance of symptoms and/or signs of malignant disease. In the context of oncology, remission indicates that the cancer disease has temporarily or permanently stopped manifesting itself in the form of symptoms and on instrumental and laboratory tests after treatment.

• Resection – surgical removal of part of an organ or tissue from a patient's body. This procedure can be performed for a variety of reasons including removing cancer, treating infections, repairing damage or correcting abnormalities. Resection of an organ with a tumor in it may be necessary to remove malignant cells and prevent them from spreading in the body. For example, breast resection for cancer allows removal of the part of the breast affected by the tumor.

• Resection margin – the boundary along which the surgeon performs the removal of a tumor during surgery. The term is commonly used in the context of cancer surgery, where the surgeon removes the tumor along with a small amount of healthy tissue around it to minimize the risk of the tumor returning in the same location. The resection margin is the portion of visually healthy tissue that has been removed along with the tumor. It is an indicator of the quality of the operation: the resection margin after tumor removal is assessed under a microscope by a pathomorphologist and, if it is free of malignant cells, it indicates that the tumor has been removed completely. 

• Sarcoma – malignant tumor that develops from bone or soft tissue such as fat, muscle, nerves and others. Because bone and soft tissue can be found almost anywhere in the body, sarcoma can occur in any part of the body. 

• Screening – process of systematically examining people without symptoms of disease in order to detect possible signs of disease in its early stages. The aim of cancer screening is to detect a malignant tumor of an organ or part of the body at an early stage, when it shows no or few symptoms, so that treatment can be started as early as possible and the patient's prognosis can be improved.

• Secondary tumor (secondary tumor focus) – a tumor that develops at a distance from the primary tumor as a result of the spread of malignant cells from the primary tumor to other parts of the body. This occurs by metastasis, when tumor cells separate from the primary tumor and travel through blood vessels or the lymphatic system and begin to grow in a new location. Secondary tumors are also called metastases. 

• Side effects – unwanted reactions or changes in the body that may occur as a result of the use of drugs, medical procedures or other treatments. These effects can come in many forms, such as physical symptoms (e.g., nausea, headache, rash), psychological reactions (e.g., anxiety, insomnia), or changes in the functioning of organs and body systems. 

• Stabilization – the absence of change or progression of the cancer over a period of time. In the context of oncology, stabilization indicates that the cancer has not increased in size or progressed after treatment, but has also not disappeared completely. 

• Systemic disease – pathological condition that affects the body as a whole rather than being limited to one specific organ or organ system. Most cancers are systemic diseases.  

• Survival rate – the probability that a person diagnosed with cancer will live for a certain period of time after diagnosis. Survival rate is the percentage of people with a particular cancer type and stage of disease who will be alive after a certain period of time (usually 5 or 10 years). Survival rates answer the question "How many percent of patients with a particular cancer diagnosis will be alive in 5/10/20 years?".

• Tumor – a mass in the human body that forms when normal cells begin to change and grow uncontrollably. A tumor can be benign or malignant.

• Tumor histological examination (or tumor histology) is the microscopic analysis of the structure, function and other characteristics of organ or tumor tissue. Histological examination is performed on tissue samples, which may be obtained by biopsy (taking a small sample of tissue) or during surgery. Histological examination helps to determine if there are abnormal changes in the tissue such as malignancy, inflammation or other diseases. Histological examination is performed in the laboratory by a pathomorphologist. 

• Tumor cell receptors – the kind of "antennae" or "receivers" that are located on the surface of tumor cells. They play a key role in sensing signals from the environment and controlling the growth and reproduction of cancer cells. When cancer cells receive certain signals through receptors, this can stimulate them to grow and multiply, which helps the cancer grow and spread further. 

• Sarcoma – malignant tumor that develops from bone or soft tissue such as fat, muscle, nerves and others. Because bone and soft tissue can be found almost anywhere in the body, sarcoma can occur in any part of the body. 

• Systemic disease – pathological condition that affects the body as a whole rather than being limited to one specific organ or organ system. Most cancers are systemic diseases.  

• Screening – process of systematically examining people without symptoms of disease in order to detect possible signs of disease in its early stages. The aim of cancer screening is to detect a malignant tumor of an organ or part of the body at an early stage, when it shows no or few symptoms, so that treatment can be started as early as possible and the patient's prognosis can be improved.

• Stabilization – the absence of change or progression of the cancer over a period of time. In the context of oncology, stabilization indicates that the cancer has not increased in size or progressed after treatment, but has also not disappeared completely. 

• Stage – unit of classification of malignant tumors based on the size of the tumor, its invasion into surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Generally, the stage of a tumor is indicated by numbers from 0 to IV, where:

  Stage 0: The tumor has not yet invaded surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body. This is also called carcinoma in situ.

  Stage I: the tumor is only in the organ where it started and is small in size.

  Stage II: the tumor has started to infiltrate nearby tissues or organs, but has not yet spread to distant organs and parts of the body.

  Stage III: the tumor has spread to nearby lymph nodes or organs but has not yet reached the stage of distant metastases.

  Stage IV: The tumor has metastasised to distant parts of the body or organs.

• Standard of care - norms and protocols established by the medical community and/or professional organizations that define the optimal approach to the diagnosis, treatment and care of patients with a particular disease or condition. 

• Stoma - an opening created surgically on the surface of the body for a number of purposes. A stoma can be used to allow breathing (tracheostomy - a hole in the trachea), intestinal stomas (colostomy) or bladder stomas (cystostomy) can be used to remove the contents of the bowel or bladder from the body. A stoma is usually created when the normal functioning of a particular organ or organ system is impaired or impossible, for example due to illness or injury. 

• Surgical treatment of cancer –  treatment method in which surgeons remove the tumor from the patient's body. The tumor may be removed in whole or in part, depending on the type and extent of the disease. Surgical treatments can range from minor operations where a small tumor is removed to complex surgical procedures that may involve removing large tumors, one or more organs or parts of organs, performing plastic surgery and prosthetics. 

• Targeted therapy – a special method of drug treatment for cancer that aims to destroy tumor cells without negatively affecting healthy cells. Targeted therapy works by targeting specific molecules or genes within cancer cells that help them grow and multiply.

• Thoracoscopy –  surgical procedure in which the doctor uses a special instrument called a thoracoscope to examine and perform a series of interventions inside the patient's chest cavity. A thoracoscope is a flexible tube with a camera and illuminator on the end, which is inserted through small incisions in the chest wall. This allows the doctor to see the internal organs of the chest cavity on a monitor and perform surgical procedures such as removing tumors, treating injuries or performing diagnostic tests (such as taking biopsies).

• Tissue – a group of structurally similar cells that work together to perform a specific function in the body. Cells combine to form tissues to make different parts of the body and organs. For example, muscle tissue is involved in movement, skin tissue protects the body, and nerve tissue transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body. 

• TNM classification – a system that is used to assess the spread of a malignant tumor in the body. It is based on three parameters:- T (tumor): This parameter assesses the size and penetration of the tumor into surrounding tissues.- N (nodules): This parameter indicates the presence or absence of spread of malignant cells in the lymph nodes.- M (metastasis): This parameter reflects the presence or absence of distant metastases - the spread of tumor cells to other organs or tissues of the body.The combination of these three parameters determines the specific stage of cancer.

• Trepan biopsy (trepanation biopsy) – a technique for taking a section of a patient's tumor tissue and/or bone marrow to obtain a sufficient volume of tissue for thorough histological examination. Trepan biopsy is performed using a special trepanation needle or trepanation gun, which allows taking a column of tissue. This tissue will subsequently be sent for examination to the laboratory, where all the necessary studies of the material will be performed to establish the most accurate diagnosis. 

• Tumor staging – the process of assessing the size, spread and other characteristics of cancer, which helps to determine the severity, prognosis of the disease and select a strategy for treatment and follow-up of the patient.  

• Tumor cytology – microscopic analysis of the structure, shape and other characteristics of cells that can be obtained from various fluids, body secretions such as blood, urine, mucus, as well as by cytological smears (PAP test) or fine-needle aspiration biopsy. Cytological examination can detect abnormalities of cells, such as changes in their shape, size or structure, which may indicate various diseases, including cancer and infections. Cytological examination can only determine if there are abnormal cells in the material being examined. For a more precise and detailed identification of pathology, a histological examination is necessary.